After spending some time discussing Early American History with high school students and touching on it in conversation with an elder generation it has become apparent that little is known about the true doings of one Christopher Columbus and his first voyage to the New World. Many cliches are today used to teach this man and his history to school children and it is important that they be addressed at some point other than in an AP History class or other college requirement.
Firstly, no educated person in the late 15th century believed that the world was flat and that a ship might fall off the edge and be devoured by dragons and whatnot. If the world was thought to be flat then Columbus' intentions to sail westward to find East China would more than explain the rejection he suffered at the hands of the monarchs. Furthermore, Columbus messed up his calculations and he messed them up badly. One of the reasons he was turned down for his voyages was the fact that the Council of Portugal whom he met before believed his calculations to be off. They knew that the world was not near as large as he painted it to be, the only problem here is that no one had charted that large expanse. Perhaps some of Columbus' crew believed that the world was flat and that could explain why he kept two log entries of their travels. If the crew didn't know how far they had traveled, worrying about the edge of the world seemed pointless.
Further, too often are the true exploits of Columbus forgotten amongst his findings. Yes, the discovery of the New World changed the world, but the treatment of its people changed an entire culture. The Colombian Exchange would reap all the gold Europe could possibly want, along with the labor to find it and work the lands. Never again would such a plague ravish the New World as the one that absolutely crippled the Native Americans whose home was rightly here.
To some scholars this information is likely easily recognized as what truly happened, however it's importance cannot be underestimated. What really happened in history is too often a far cry from what is remembered and an event such as Columbus' voyage has become so wrought with fairy tales that the truth is only known to those who actively study the subject. Columbus was not necessarily a bad person or a good person, historians have the responsibility of making others see the facts. Columbus was merely an explorer looking for wealth and fame, and he found it, his methods however need to be remembered by all.
For more info on Columbus:
http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/columbus.htm
http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/christopher-columbus.htm
Saturday, November 7, 2009
Sunday, November 1, 2009
Original Melting Pot
It seems that Americans are born taking pride in the idea of the melting pot. The American Melting Pot allows each and every citizen to feel that no matter their culture, their beliefs, or their heritage, they are valued as an important ingredient in a larger matter. However, something not quite publicized is that the Americas were not the first great melting pot society. Ancient cultures have long been experts at assimilating new religious and political regimes to create a much stronger union. The famous Silk Road can be viewed as one of these great melting pots that would change much of Europe and Asia at the height of many an empire.
The Silk road established a route that could, in theory reach all the way from the Chinese city of Luoyang near the Pacific Ocean to Tyre on the Mediterranean Sea. Although seldom traveled to their whole length by single merchants, these roads still allowed for the transportation of much besides wealth. Culture traveled with merchants, and most merchants coming from India traveled with Buddhism in their hearts and spread the religion across Asia. Soon western China would be home to Buddhist cities and temples.
However, Buddhism was not immune to the effects of the melting pots. Secular affairs in wealthy cities neighboring the Silk Road rose in number although original Buddhism had supposedly shunned material world. In some of the northwest regions of India, Buddhism met with the remnants of Alexander and Buddha's statues became slightly Greco-Roman in nature. A Greco-Roman son of Zeus (Herakles) was adopted by Buddhists of the area to represent one of the divine protectors of Buddha.
However, as culture is allowed to transit from place to place with greater speed, so is disease. In today's world we are always bombarded with this fear as more and more diseases spread with greater speed and the word epidemic is thrown out so often that it is rare to watch the news without hearing something of it. The Silk Road on the other hand gave rise to perhaps one of the most feared diseases ever found-the Black Death. After the Mongol control of the Eurasian landmass came to an abrupt end, interactions between Asia and Europe increased as under one empire the advantages of long distance trade became apparent. The Black Death was the result, a series of diseases that are believed today to be comprised mostly of bubonic plague, anthrax of other epidemics. It is believed, that within 4 years 1/3 of Europe was killed by the Black Death...4 years. The Melting Pot failed to assimilate that one.
Whether it be the American Melting Pot which is credited with creating a diverse and dominant culture in today's world or the Silk Road, cultural collision existed. Some cultures resisted and sought to remain true to their roots. Most of them aren't around anymore although a few likely exist to some degree. Cultures, disease, the good comes with the bad, but as the test of time as the example, those cultures that adopt new practices and assimilate new ideas are the ones that will become the greats.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I cannot find much information of Vajrapani that makes much sense to me, Robert Strayer's textbook Ways of the World: A Brief Global History is where my info comes from or you can feel free to check wikipedia at your leisure.
For a brief Chinese version on the effects of the Silk Road please follow this link
http://library.thinkquest.org/13406/sr/
The Silk road established a route that could, in theory reach all the way from the Chinese city of Luoyang near the Pacific Ocean to Tyre on the Mediterranean Sea. Although seldom traveled to their whole length by single merchants, these roads still allowed for the transportation of much besides wealth. Culture traveled with merchants, and most merchants coming from India traveled with Buddhism in their hearts and spread the religion across Asia. Soon western China would be home to Buddhist cities and temples.
However, Buddhism was not immune to the effects of the melting pots. Secular affairs in wealthy cities neighboring the Silk Road rose in number although original Buddhism had supposedly shunned material world. In some of the northwest regions of India, Buddhism met with the remnants of Alexander and Buddha's statues became slightly Greco-Roman in nature. A Greco-Roman son of Zeus (Herakles) was adopted by Buddhists of the area to represent one of the divine protectors of Buddha.
However, as culture is allowed to transit from place to place with greater speed, so is disease. In today's world we are always bombarded with this fear as more and more diseases spread with greater speed and the word epidemic is thrown out so often that it is rare to watch the news without hearing something of it. The Silk Road on the other hand gave rise to perhaps one of the most feared diseases ever found-the Black Death. After the Mongol control of the Eurasian landmass came to an abrupt end, interactions between Asia and Europe increased as under one empire the advantages of long distance trade became apparent. The Black Death was the result, a series of diseases that are believed today to be comprised mostly of bubonic plague, anthrax of other epidemics. It is believed, that within 4 years 1/3 of Europe was killed by the Black Death...4 years. The Melting Pot failed to assimilate that one.
Whether it be the American Melting Pot which is credited with creating a diverse and dominant culture in today's world or the Silk Road, cultural collision existed. Some cultures resisted and sought to remain true to their roots. Most of them aren't around anymore although a few likely exist to some degree. Cultures, disease, the good comes with the bad, but as the test of time as the example, those cultures that adopt new practices and assimilate new ideas are the ones that will become the greats.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I cannot find much information of Vajrapani that makes much sense to me, Robert Strayer's textbook Ways of the World: A Brief Global History is where my info comes from or you can feel free to check wikipedia at your leisure.
For a brief Chinese version on the effects of the Silk Road please follow this link
http://library.thinkquest.org/13406/sr/
Saturday, October 31, 2009
Impacts of the Silk Road
At any one moment, an individual is surrounded by multitudes of objects that were not made, raised, or grown in his or her town, state, or even the same country. The global economy that everyone lives and participates in depends on extensive trading between distant nations. This type of cross-cultural trade has always been a part of every human civilization, but it was not until the development of the Silk Road did an organized system of trade appear which could directly link places thousands of miles apart.
This massive trade network is the precursor to modern, worldwide trade that impacts everyone from farmers in Africa to engineers in Detroit to European CEO's. The Silk Road connected the entire Eurasian continent and allowed goods to travel from one end of the known world to the other, traveling over land and sea, much like the modern shipping lanes and truck routes of the present day.
Also, just like the world today, Chinese products flooded the markets. Precious items like silk and porcelain could be traded for Roman gold and Italian wine. This is comparable to the traffic of raw materials, toys, electronics, oil, and money that constantly circulate the world. The goods themselves traveled the length of the Silk Road, while the merchants rarely moved outside their circuits. The process of how goods moved from one end of the ancient trade network to the other is long and twisted. Goods exchanged hands from merchant to merchant along the road, slowly moving either east or west over land and sea until they reach their final destination. It was unheard of for a merchant to travel from Rome to China or vice versa in an effort to sell goods without the numerous middle men involved in the process.
While modern trade is even more extensive than the Silk Road, the reach of the Silk Road was enormous for its era. New Empires like the Romans and the Han Dynasty could provide upkeep and protection for the Silk Road, making it easier and safer for traders to move about. Again, this is reminiscent of trade networks in the modern era, as nations strive to provide safe, cheap, and fast access for traveling goods and in some cases, such as oversea transport, protection from bandits and pirates.
With all these similarities, it is easy to say that the Silk Road had a great impact in its time period. The Silk Road had all the things that are integral to modern trade today, from the ability to reach distant nations to allowing the movement of goods through thousands of miles, making it a model for trade networks in every era since then.
For more information, check out http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html
This massive trade network is the precursor to modern, worldwide trade that impacts everyone from farmers in Africa to engineers in Detroit to European CEO's. The Silk Road connected the entire Eurasian continent and allowed goods to travel from one end of the known world to the other, traveling over land and sea, much like the modern shipping lanes and truck routes of the present day.
Also, just like the world today, Chinese products flooded the markets. Precious items like silk and porcelain could be traded for Roman gold and Italian wine. This is comparable to the traffic of raw materials, toys, electronics, oil, and money that constantly circulate the world. The goods themselves traveled the length of the Silk Road, while the merchants rarely moved outside their circuits. The process of how goods moved from one end of the ancient trade network to the other is long and twisted. Goods exchanged hands from merchant to merchant along the road, slowly moving either east or west over land and sea until they reach their final destination. It was unheard of for a merchant to travel from Rome to China or vice versa in an effort to sell goods without the numerous middle men involved in the process.
While modern trade is even more extensive than the Silk Road, the reach of the Silk Road was enormous for its era. New Empires like the Romans and the Han Dynasty could provide upkeep and protection for the Silk Road, making it easier and safer for traders to move about. Again, this is reminiscent of trade networks in the modern era, as nations strive to provide safe, cheap, and fast access for traveling goods and in some cases, such as oversea transport, protection from bandits and pirates.
With all these similarities, it is easy to say that the Silk Road had a great impact in its time period. The Silk Road had all the things that are integral to modern trade today, from the ability to reach distant nations to allowing the movement of goods through thousands of miles, making it a model for trade networks in every era since then.
For more information, check out http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html
The Crusades: A Brief History
When we learn about the crusades we only focus on two, the first and the third. They are the most important, however, I was curious about the others. In this blog post I will briefly discuss all the crusades.
The First Crusade
The first Crusade (1095-1099), was called by Pope Urban II to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslims. This Crusade was the most successful, and in the end Jerusalem was taken and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established. Also, three other crusader states were established, Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli.
The Second Crusade
The Second Crusade (1147-1149), was called to recover the city of Edessa, which had been lost in 1145. Two kings took up the call Louis VII of France and Conrad of the Holy Roman Empire. Unfortunately, the German army was decisively defeated by the Turks in Anatolia, and this defeat knocked them out of the crusade. When the French arrived in the Holy Land they decided to attack the city of Damascus. However, due to major losses they were unable to maintain an effective siege, and with a Muslim army marching to relieve the city, they left, ending the Crusade.
The Third Crusade
The Third Crusade (1188-1192), was called to take back the city of Jerusalem. Three kings answered the call, Frederick Barbarossa, Phillip II of France, and Richard the Lionheart. Frederick's army marched to the Holy Land over land. However, his army turned back in Anatolia when he drowned. Phillip and Richard traveled by sea. After taking back the port city of Acre, Phillip, due to his health, left for home. Richard then traveled down the coast being harassed and attacked by the Muslim leader Saladin. However, Richard's army was took weak to take back Jerusalem. therefore, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty. Although not able to take back Jerusalem the crusaders took back and defended the coastal cities.
The Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was called because of the failure of the third. The Crusader army gathered at Venice to purchase passage to the Holy Land. However, they were not able to pay for the passage. Therefore, the Venetians make a deal; the Crusaders would take Zama, a rebellious city on the Adriatic, and then they would take them to the Holy Land. Before, the fleet sailed Prince Alexius of the Byzantines showed up. He convinced the Crusaders to attack Constantinople, because Alexius's father was over thrown and replaced by his brother. The Crusaders, after defeating Zama, sailed to Constantinople. After a siege and assaults, the cities defences fell, leading to a sack of the city. The Fourth Crusade ended here, after the great wealth of Constantinople had been divided among the victors.
The Fifth Crusade
The Fifth Crusade (1213-1221) set out to take Egypt. Egypt was the main Muslim power in the area, therefore, to knock it out Jerusalem would be easier to take. The Crusader army landed on the Nile planning to march up it to take Cairo. The first city to take was Damietta, which was on the Nile blocking the route to Cairo. After a year of siege and unsuccessful attempts by the Muslims to defeat the Crusader army, the city was taken. Due to Crusader disunity and waiting for reinforcements the army did not move on Cairo immediately. This allowed the Muslims to build up strength. When the Crusader army finally moved marched on Cairo they were defeated. After this defeat a peace treaty was signed that restored all lands before the Crusade began and a eight year peace.
The Sixth Crusade
The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) was Holy Roman Emperor's Frederick II crusade to make up for his failure to come to the aid of the crusaders in the Fifth Crusade. Frederick II due to his long history of backing down from the crusades, his conflicts with the Pope, and an outbreak of disease on his ships that delayed him, the Pope excommunicated him. Nevertheless Frederick sailed to the Holy Land. However, due to his excommunication many in the Holy Land did not help him and join his crusade. Therefore, Frederick could not launch an offensive. Fortunately, Muslim infighting created an opportunity for diplomacy. Frederick signed a peace treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, Al-Kamil. This treaty returned Jerusalem to the Christians and guaranteed a ten year peace. Frederick claimed the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but left the Holy Land because local Christian leaders did not recognized him as king.
The Seventh Crusade
The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) was undertaken by King Louis XI of France. This last major Crusade resembled the fifth one. Louis planned to take Egypt, therefore, weakening the Muslim hold on Jerusalem. Like the Fifth Crusade, Louis marched down the Nile, taking Damietta, with relative ease. Louis continued the march to Cairo, attacking the Muslims at Mansourah. At first the battle went in favor of the Crusaders. However, a counterattack pushed the crusaders back to their camp. Due to a Muslim blockade and an outbreak of disease the Crusader army surrendered. King Louis was released when his ransom was paid.
The Eighth Crusade
The Eighth Crusade (1270) was another crusade taken by Louis XI of France. The plan was to take Tunisia and then march across north Africa to Egypt and the Holy Land. However, after beginning the siege of Tunis, Louis died. His brother succeeded him, and a peace treaty was signed.
The Ninth Crusade
The Ninth Crusade (1271-1272) was carried out by Prince Edward of England. Edward arriving too late to participate in the eighth crusade decided to sail for the Holy Land. After arriving he ended the siege of Acre. Unfortunately, word got to him that his father died and he had to return to England to be crowned king.
After the Ninth Crusade there were no more attempts to regain the Holy Land. The final Crusader city, Acre, fell in 1291 ending the Crusading era.
For more information about the Crusades
http://crusades.boisestate.edu/contents.shtml
The First Crusade
The first Crusade (1095-1099), was called by Pope Urban II to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslims. This Crusade was the most successful, and in the end Jerusalem was taken and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established. Also, three other crusader states were established, Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli.
The Second Crusade
The Second Crusade (1147-1149), was called to recover the city of Edessa, which had been lost in 1145. Two kings took up the call Louis VII of France and Conrad of the Holy Roman Empire. Unfortunately, the German army was decisively defeated by the Turks in Anatolia, and this defeat knocked them out of the crusade. When the French arrived in the Holy Land they decided to attack the city of Damascus. However, due to major losses they were unable to maintain an effective siege, and with a Muslim army marching to relieve the city, they left, ending the Crusade.
The Third Crusade
The Third Crusade (1188-1192), was called to take back the city of Jerusalem. Three kings answered the call, Frederick Barbarossa, Phillip II of France, and Richard the Lionheart. Frederick's army marched to the Holy Land over land. However, his army turned back in Anatolia when he drowned. Phillip and Richard traveled by sea. After taking back the port city of Acre, Phillip, due to his health, left for home. Richard then traveled down the coast being harassed and attacked by the Muslim leader Saladin. However, Richard's army was took weak to take back Jerusalem. therefore, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty. Although not able to take back Jerusalem the crusaders took back and defended the coastal cities.
The Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was called because of the failure of the third. The Crusader army gathered at Venice to purchase passage to the Holy Land. However, they were not able to pay for the passage. Therefore, the Venetians make a deal; the Crusaders would take Zama, a rebellious city on the Adriatic, and then they would take them to the Holy Land. Before, the fleet sailed Prince Alexius of the Byzantines showed up. He convinced the Crusaders to attack Constantinople, because Alexius's father was over thrown and replaced by his brother. The Crusaders, after defeating Zama, sailed to Constantinople. After a siege and assaults, the cities defences fell, leading to a sack of the city. The Fourth Crusade ended here, after the great wealth of Constantinople had been divided among the victors.
The Fifth Crusade
The Fifth Crusade (1213-1221) set out to take Egypt. Egypt was the main Muslim power in the area, therefore, to knock it out Jerusalem would be easier to take. The Crusader army landed on the Nile planning to march up it to take Cairo. The first city to take was Damietta, which was on the Nile blocking the route to Cairo. After a year of siege and unsuccessful attempts by the Muslims to defeat the Crusader army, the city was taken. Due to Crusader disunity and waiting for reinforcements the army did not move on Cairo immediately. This allowed the Muslims to build up strength. When the Crusader army finally moved marched on Cairo they were defeated. After this defeat a peace treaty was signed that restored all lands before the Crusade began and a eight year peace.
The Sixth Crusade
The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) was Holy Roman Emperor's Frederick II crusade to make up for his failure to come to the aid of the crusaders in the Fifth Crusade. Frederick II due to his long history of backing down from the crusades, his conflicts with the Pope, and an outbreak of disease on his ships that delayed him, the Pope excommunicated him. Nevertheless Frederick sailed to the Holy Land. However, due to his excommunication many in the Holy Land did not help him and join his crusade. Therefore, Frederick could not launch an offensive. Fortunately, Muslim infighting created an opportunity for diplomacy. Frederick signed a peace treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, Al-Kamil. This treaty returned Jerusalem to the Christians and guaranteed a ten year peace. Frederick claimed the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but left the Holy Land because local Christian leaders did not recognized him as king.
The Seventh Crusade
The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) was undertaken by King Louis XI of France. This last major Crusade resembled the fifth one. Louis planned to take Egypt, therefore, weakening the Muslim hold on Jerusalem. Like the Fifth Crusade, Louis marched down the Nile, taking Damietta, with relative ease. Louis continued the march to Cairo, attacking the Muslims at Mansourah. At first the battle went in favor of the Crusaders. However, a counterattack pushed the crusaders back to their camp. Due to a Muslim blockade and an outbreak of disease the Crusader army surrendered. King Louis was released when his ransom was paid.
The Eighth Crusade
The Eighth Crusade (1270) was another crusade taken by Louis XI of France. The plan was to take Tunisia and then march across north Africa to Egypt and the Holy Land. However, after beginning the siege of Tunis, Louis died. His brother succeeded him, and a peace treaty was signed.
The Ninth Crusade
The Ninth Crusade (1271-1272) was carried out by Prince Edward of England. Edward arriving too late to participate in the eighth crusade decided to sail for the Holy Land. After arriving he ended the siege of Acre. Unfortunately, word got to him that his father died and he had to return to England to be crowned king.
After the Ninth Crusade there were no more attempts to regain the Holy Land. The final Crusader city, Acre, fell in 1291 ending the Crusading era.
For more information about the Crusades
http://crusades.boisestate.edu/contents.shtml
Saturday, October 24, 2009
Precolumbian African-Carribean Interaction
Ever Since high school, I've been vaguely aware of scholarly concepts that Africans discovered the New World before Columbus. A geologist named Mark McMenamin interprets the pattern on gold coins minted in the North African city Carthage around 350 and 320 B.C. I have included several versions for your deciphering.
His argument is based around evidence that the Carthaginians were culturally linked to contemporary Phoenicians and that both peoples had been widely regarded for their sailing and maritime accomplishments in the Mediterranean and the British Isles.
The image was simply overlooked as confusingly written, Phoenician script. However, this theory was discounted in the 1960's and has baffled anyone since.
My take: Why would you make something that intricate if it was going to be sloppy and unrecognizable? There probably is some credibility to McMenamin hypothesis yet it need not be standard operating procedure until more evidence is uncovered. Perhaps this is unlikely because, going back to the coin example: why would you plot a little-known land mass on a coin to be seen by many without plotting it on other documents?
I remember an article in a magazine a few years back about African traders bringing metal shipments to the Carribean during the 14th and 15th centuries yet I couldnt find any articles on that...if you can, let me know :)
Mayan Civilization
About a hundred years after the collapse of the Great Zimbabwe civilizations I mentioned in the last post, another empire was snuffed out on the other side of the globe. The Mayan Empire, which had withstood the test of time for over three thousand years, was destroyed in 1550's by Spanish greed. However, the Mayan peoples still live on today, integrated into the societies of numerous South American countries.
The Mayans began as an agricultural people that shared a common language in 2000 BCE. These people would come to occupy the land from southern Mexico to Western Honduras. They began with basic agricultural techniques to grow corn, beans, and cacao and raised domesticated dogs, turkeys, and ducks. They soon advanced to crop rotation and terracing and worshipped agricultural gods in villages run by chieftains. Even in this relatively primitive living arrangement, they had developed rudimentary astronomy as part of their religion. It was not long before the chiefs and nobles began constructing larger towns and monuments like pyramids. These larger towns held thousands of people, making the Mayan civilizations one of the most populous empires of the ancient world. They began developing the areas around their cities, turning them into stone urban centers, complete with palaces, water reservoirs, causeways, and covered with a limestone stucco, providing a uniform look in all settlements.
As time went on, society became more complex. The system of chiefs had developed into an entire social class of kings and nobles, who also doubled as priests during religious ceremonies. Each city was run by a king and his nobles and each city competed with each other and developed economically. Warfare was a part of Mayan life, but it was relegated into a ceremonial affair, waged on a much smaller scale than many of the empires around that time. The battles were mostly just raids by groups of nobles that did no real damage, other than some destruction to temples and the attempted kidnapping and sacrifice of rival rulers.
The people were divided into classes which included: Kings, Nobles, Merchants, Priests, Craftsmen, Farmers, and Slaves. These people believed in a polytheistic religion that required sacrifices. They also developed complex mathematics, astronomy, calendars, the concept of the number zero, and recorded their history on stone, pottery, and paper.
This society eventually began to deteriorate, as with all societies, and it began to breathe it's last when the Mayans abandoned the lowlands due to unknown reasons around late 800 CE. As of now, science has narrowed the cause to extended drought, disease, or warfare. Pretty much the standard we-don't-know-for-sure answer. This led to a weakening of Mayan society, economically, scientifically, and religiously. During this time, the Mayan civilization retreated into the Yucatan peninsula and focused their efforts their.
They rebuilt their civilization and began to flourish again until the Spanish arrived in 1511 CE. The Spanish Conquistadors and the colonists that followed soon began eradicating the Mayans through war, slavery, and disease, leading to total conquest of the area in 1697 CE. The Mayan civilization was no more, but remnants of it still survive in the hearts of many of its people, some of which have descendants still living in their homelands.
Oh, and by the way, nothing is going to happen in 2012.
Find out more at:
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576077_3/Maya_Civilization.html
The Mayans began as an agricultural people that shared a common language in 2000 BCE. These people would come to occupy the land from southern Mexico to Western Honduras. They began with basic agricultural techniques to grow corn, beans, and cacao and raised domesticated dogs, turkeys, and ducks. They soon advanced to crop rotation and terracing and worshipped agricultural gods in villages run by chieftains. Even in this relatively primitive living arrangement, they had developed rudimentary astronomy as part of their religion. It was not long before the chiefs and nobles began constructing larger towns and monuments like pyramids. These larger towns held thousands of people, making the Mayan civilizations one of the most populous empires of the ancient world. They began developing the areas around their cities, turning them into stone urban centers, complete with palaces, water reservoirs, causeways, and covered with a limestone stucco, providing a uniform look in all settlements.
As time went on, society became more complex. The system of chiefs had developed into an entire social class of kings and nobles, who also doubled as priests during religious ceremonies. Each city was run by a king and his nobles and each city competed with each other and developed economically. Warfare was a part of Mayan life, but it was relegated into a ceremonial affair, waged on a much smaller scale than many of the empires around that time. The battles were mostly just raids by groups of nobles that did no real damage, other than some destruction to temples and the attempted kidnapping and sacrifice of rival rulers.
The people were divided into classes which included: Kings, Nobles, Merchants, Priests, Craftsmen, Farmers, and Slaves. These people believed in a polytheistic religion that required sacrifices. They also developed complex mathematics, astronomy, calendars, the concept of the number zero, and recorded their history on stone, pottery, and paper.
This society eventually began to deteriorate, as with all societies, and it began to breathe it's last when the Mayans abandoned the lowlands due to unknown reasons around late 800 CE. As of now, science has narrowed the cause to extended drought, disease, or warfare. Pretty much the standard we-don't-know-for-sure answer. This led to a weakening of Mayan society, economically, scientifically, and religiously. During this time, the Mayan civilization retreated into the Yucatan peninsula and focused their efforts their.
They rebuilt their civilization and began to flourish again until the Spanish arrived in 1511 CE. The Spanish Conquistadors and the colonists that followed soon began eradicating the Mayans through war, slavery, and disease, leading to total conquest of the area in 1697 CE. The Mayan civilization was no more, but remnants of it still survive in the hearts of many of its people, some of which have descendants still living in their homelands.
Oh, and by the way, nothing is going to happen in 2012.
Find out more at:
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576077_3/Maya_Civilization.html
The Other Civilizations
Mostly, when the history curriculum turns to the great empires and civilizations of the world, the most often fought of are Rome, China, and possibly the South East Indian civilizations. Perhaps Persia or Egypt gets a mention from someone. Since the aforementioned societies shaped modern politics, economics, and social thought to such a degree that they did, the other societies are often forgotten. What of the kingdoms and tribal influences of Africa? Surely the land that scientifically spawned humanity deserves a mention in the minds of the college student. Furthermore, what mention is there of the Native American populations? Why is it that the other empires are so remembered and these are so forgotten?
Firstly, according to Robert Strayers textbook Ways of the World, A Brief Global History the lack of domesticated animals plays a large role in the power of societies. Unless water buffalo, zebra, and elephants count, Africa has slim pickings on animals it could domesticate. Now the great kingdoms ans cities of Africa did have access to the Roman markets as they continued to expand, however even at the height of the markets' involvements it was not enough to overcome this inherent disadvantage. Mesoamerica was likewise void of pack animals that could raise its empires to new heights. Without these creatures, transportation could not reach the same level as it did in Rome, nor could animals be used in an agricultural sense.
However, Mesoamerica and Africa managed to develop agriculture despite the domestication set back. According to Strayer, Mesoamerica was a "'totally engineered landscape'" in which the natives terraced mountains, constructed irrigation systems, and drained swamps. They were masters of their environment. The African societies cropped up after a large drought formed several large cities in the Southern Saharan region and consequently smaller villages formed up to supply the population with crops.
The cities of both continents also differed from the classic 'big' empires by their forms of governance. Quite a few of the African cities were noted to be 'cities without citadels' in that they had few distinct governments ruling the areas. Mesoamerica often relied on the elite families to rule over its people. Although many different ruling ideologies existed these helped differentiate between the great empires of the East. The differences between these empires helped form distinctive cultures that would never be seen in the same light. Due to the political and economic differences of these cultures, some would be forever remembered and others left as footnotes.
Firstly, according to Robert Strayers textbook Ways of the World, A Brief Global History the lack of domesticated animals plays a large role in the power of societies. Unless water buffalo, zebra, and elephants count, Africa has slim pickings on animals it could domesticate. Now the great kingdoms ans cities of Africa did have access to the Roman markets as they continued to expand, however even at the height of the markets' involvements it was not enough to overcome this inherent disadvantage. Mesoamerica was likewise void of pack animals that could raise its empires to new heights. Without these creatures, transportation could not reach the same level as it did in Rome, nor could animals be used in an agricultural sense.
However, Mesoamerica and Africa managed to develop agriculture despite the domestication set back. According to Strayer, Mesoamerica was a "'totally engineered landscape'" in which the natives terraced mountains, constructed irrigation systems, and drained swamps. They were masters of their environment. The African societies cropped up after a large drought formed several large cities in the Southern Saharan region and consequently smaller villages formed up to supply the population with crops.
The cities of both continents also differed from the classic 'big' empires by their forms of governance. Quite a few of the African cities were noted to be 'cities without citadels' in that they had few distinct governments ruling the areas. Mesoamerica often relied on the elite families to rule over its people. Although many different ruling ideologies existed these helped differentiate between the great empires of the East. The differences between these empires helped form distinctive cultures that would never be seen in the same light. Due to the political and economic differences of these cultures, some would be forever remembered and others left as footnotes.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)