The subject of The Crusades came up in class this past week as a major change in Islamic-Christian relations during the medieval period. The Crusades were a major blot on the name of Christianity, as thousands upon thousands of people were massacred on both sides in the name of religion. Countless atrocities were committed throughout the bloody history of the Crusades, which planted the seed of mistrust between Muslims and Christians.
This view was also shared by the Power Metal band called Demons & Wizards, which was a side project of Blind Guardian and Iced Earth, two European Metal bands. One of their songs is called "Poor Man's Crusade" and it paints the Crusaders as misled individuals under the control of a deceiver. Yet it also accuses the Christian soldiers of mindless slaughter under the guise of "religious purification".
A few song lyrics stand out as relating directly to the discussion in class. The Pope that began the Crusades, Pope Urban II, is referenced in the song as: "He convinced us all. He is a gifted man, though he will slaughter in the name of Christ. Holy and bright, he's a devil in disguise. Protector of the cross, beware of the snake." As a man of the cloth, Pope Urban II should have proclaimed a message of peace, but instead, he deceived many Christians into joining a series of brutal wars.
Demons & Wizards also highlight the fact that the conquering Christians viewed the Muslim rule over Jerusalem as an insult to the birth place of their religion that could only be rectified by pagan deaths. The chorus explains this viewpoint through the following lyrics: "The Holy Land, home of our blessed lord, enslaved and stained by godless hands, they shall be damned. Jerusalem is waiting for you to rise once again, so we will slaughter in the name of Christ."
The last part of the song details the needless sacrifice and the bloodthirsty nature of the Christian soldiers in a senseless war. This set of lyrics also explains one of the strong motivators of the Christian soldiers. By joining the Crusades, the soldiers were deemed pure and free of sin, as long as they fought well in combat against the Muslims. This is shown as:"You'll shed your blood, Your bodies fall. That is the price you'll pay to cleanse you of your sins. Vicious and cruel, let's kill them all, let's kill them all. So we will slaughter in the name of Christ."
With such a violent meeting between two major religions, it seems inevitable that these events would have a lasting impact between Islam and Christianity. Muslims began to view the Christians as barbarians, while the Christians saw all Muslims as vile pagans. The Crusades would go on to influence other aspects of Europe and the Middle East, such as the movement of ideas and the spread of trade.
It seems that Blind Guardian has a recurring Christian theme in some of their songs. The singer is from Blind Guardian, so the vocals may sound similar to "Precious Jerusalem", the song from my previous post. It is the same Power Metal type of music as last week, so it shares the slower tempo and the epic story element.
Showing posts with label Informational. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Informational. Show all posts
Saturday, November 21, 2009
University of Sankore
The founding of Islam and its spread had a large influence on world. Not only did the new power cause Persia and Byzantium to crumble, its spread touched worlds that were both distant and unique. One world Islam spread to was West Africa. Besides the introduction of faith, Islam brought to this world the thirst for knowledge. In the mythical city of Timbuktu a University was founded that rivaled any University to date, its name was Sankore.
Sankore University was founded in 989 CE, originally as a Mosque. However, during the reign of Mansa Musa (1312-1337) the University was founded. soon becoming a large center of learning with an student population of 25,000 from all over Africa. There were four levels of degrees available at Sankore, primary, secondary, superior, and the circle of knowledge. The Primary degree was learning Arabic and memorizing the Quran. The Secondary degree was in general studies. These studies included the sciences such as astrology, mathematics, and chemistry. The University also offered courses that a trade school would offer, such as carpentry, tailoring, farming, fishing, and construction. Finally, business and ethics were offered. The Superior degree offers students a chance to do research and be instructed by the best professors. The Circle of Knowledge is becoming an imam or a professor at the University.
Unfortunately, the University went into decline when Timbuktu was invaded by Morocco in 1593 and took the best professors back to Morocco. The University never recovered, however its legacy lives on. Some figures have the manuscripts discovered at over a million. This large and prosperous center of learning shows us Islams influence and thirst for learning. also it shows us the level of intelligence and learning in Africa. There is an old West African proverb that sums up the nature of West Africa during this time "Salt comes from the north, gold from the south, silver from the country of white men, but the word of God and the treasures of wisdom are only to be found in Timbuktu."
For more information:
Saturday, November 14, 2009
The Inferno, A Field Trip Through Hell
The picture probably got your attention didn't it?
The Inferno, by Dante Alighieri, is the first book in a three part series called the Divine Comedy. The Divine Comedy is about a poet named Dante, who travels through the realms of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. The Inferno describes his journey through Hell with his guide Virgil and all that he encounters within the fiery realm.
The class discussions this week have been about Christianity in Western Europe, so The Inferno is relevant, as it is a very descriptive view of how Medieval Christians imagined Hell. Hell was an important concept in early Catholicism as it kept people in line and enforced order throughout society. Many Christians during the Medieval times were afraid of the eternal punishments that awaited the wicked and strove to act like good Samaritans.
The Inferno describes Hell through the eyes of Dante, as a realm without hope and full of pain. The book goes into much detail, going so far as describing the geography of Hell, portraying it as an upside down mountain, divided into 9 circles, or levels. Each level housed a different kind of Sinner, with the first few reserved for either pagans or sins of excess, such as greed, lust, or gluttony. The next three housed the violent, the slothful, and the heretics. The last two were reserved for frauds and traitors that betrayed the trust of others.
Each level had specific punishments for the sins committed by those inside. An example would be that the greedy in the fourth level were forced to push giant bags of gold uphill for eternity, similar to Sisyphus's punishment in Greek Mythology. Initially, Dante felt sorrow and pity for the tortured souls, but he begins to see that no matter how harsh the punishment, the soul being punished had done something to deserve it. At the very bottom, in the depths of the ninth circle of Hell, Lucifer himself is trapped in a lake of ice and chewing on the three most prominent sinners of history. Cassius and Brutus both planned and carried out the assassination of Julius Caesar, who Dante the Author viewed as the man who was chosen by God to unify Italy. The third traitor is Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus to the Romans, which is the most evil thing Dante could envision.
Ultimately, The Inferno is an allegorical story of what awaits sinners in the afterlife. This tale shows the true horror of Hell as it was imagined by Medieval Christians and the influence of Christianity on Western Europe. Also, it shows a darker aspect of Christianity's Salvation promise. Sure, Heaven awaits the souls of the dead, but only if they have lead a virtous life. Otherwise, those impure souls are sent to a place of eternal punishment and pain, with no hope of redemption.
Thursday, November 12, 2009
Emperor Justinian the Great or the Foolish
The most powerful and well known Byzantine Emperor was Justinian. His many accomplishments include building the Hagia Sophia, organizing the law code, and reconquering some parts of the old Western Roman Empire. However, Justinian was not only the greatest Byzantine Emperor he was also the worst, causing the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire. This was done through poor decisions and his campaign to reconquer the west.
When Justinian ruled Byzantium (527-565 CE) he ruled the most powerful Empire in the Mediterranean, with vast amounts of mineral wealth and treasure. Justinian, believing he was the heir to the Roman Empire, wanted to reconquer the west. His opportunity came when, to protect the faith, set out to take over the Arian Christians who were considered to be heretics. The Arian Christians included the Vandals and the Ostrogoths. The Vandals were persecuting members of the Roman Church, therefore, as protector of the faith Justinian had cause for war.
Justinian first set out to retake North Africa from the Vandals. This was not difficult, due to the weakness of the Vandals in numbers and ability. The Conquest of the Vandals only took six months ending in 533 CE. Next Justinian set his eyes on Italy. Although he was able to wrestle Italy away from the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines were not able to hold it. Three years after his death in 565 CE a new group of barbarians, the Lombards, took over Italy. Why was Justinian not able to hold the reconquered territory? The most important reason was many of the Romans who lived in these areas did not support Byzantium, some even fought against them. Also in Italy the only reason why the Byzantium army survived was the strength of their navy. Their numbers were too few and many had to be recalled to protect the Empire against the Persians.
The most important reason why Justinian caused the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire was before the reconquest Justinian paid the Persians for peace. With large sums of money going to the Persians and more money and manpower going to the reconquest, Byzantium declined in power. Due to the lack of money economy slowed down and the increased taxes caused the people of Empire to lose allegiance to Constantinople. All of these led to the slow decay and carving up of the once powerful Empire.
When Justinian ruled Byzantium (527-565 CE) he ruled the most powerful Empire in the Mediterranean, with vast amounts of mineral wealth and treasure. Justinian, believing he was the heir to the Roman Empire, wanted to reconquer the west. His opportunity came when, to protect the faith, set out to take over the Arian Christians who were considered to be heretics. The Arian Christians included the Vandals and the Ostrogoths. The Vandals were persecuting members of the Roman Church, therefore, as protector of the faith Justinian had cause for war.
Justinian first set out to retake North Africa from the Vandals. This was not difficult, due to the weakness of the Vandals in numbers and ability. The Conquest of the Vandals only took six months ending in 533 CE. Next Justinian set his eyes on Italy. Although he was able to wrestle Italy away from the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines were not able to hold it. Three years after his death in 565 CE a new group of barbarians, the Lombards, took over Italy. Why was Justinian not able to hold the reconquered territory? The most important reason was many of the Romans who lived in these areas did not support Byzantium, some even fought against them. Also in Italy the only reason why the Byzantium army survived was the strength of their navy. Their numbers were too few and many had to be recalled to protect the Empire against the Persians.
The most important reason why Justinian caused the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire was before the reconquest Justinian paid the Persians for peace. With large sums of money going to the Persians and more money and manpower going to the reconquest, Byzantium declined in power. Due to the lack of money economy slowed down and the increased taxes caused the people of Empire to lose allegiance to Constantinople. All of these led to the slow decay and carving up of the once powerful Empire.
Saturday, November 7, 2009
Halloween Origins
Everyone remembers the holiday that was just celebrated last week, unless there was heavy drinking involved. Halloween is a big deal in America and it invokes thoughts of candy, costumes, and a cold night spent begging at strangers' homes. Almost everyone participates in it as children and even as adults, treat it as a day of celebration.
However, the concept of Halloween that we know today shares many differences and similarities with its Celtic and Christian origins. The name itself, Halloween, developed from Christian roots. In the 800's CE, November first was declared by the pope as All Saint's Day, or All-Hallows. The word Halloween developed from the old English word for the evening before All-Hallows.
For example, many people wear costumes during Halloween for fun, trick or treating, and for tradition. In the old Celtic traditions, costumes take on a more serious meaning. During the Celtic celebration of Samhain, it was believed that the barrier between the physical and the spiritual worlds would be at its thinnest as the world transitions from warm to cold seasons. At this time, spirits, both malevolent and benevolent, are able to move between worlds. In order to ward off evil spirits, the Celtic people would wear masks and disguises that made them look like the evil spirits. The evil spirits, seeing only other spirits and no people, would wander off in search of other victims. The reason for wearing costumes has obviously changed over the years, taking on a more light-hearted meaning.
The modern symbol of caramel apples in connection with Halloween has roots in both Roman and Celtic cultures. One reason is that, before the Roman occupation, Halloween was the end of Summer, the beginning of Fall, and the beginning of the apple harvest. The other reason is that after Roman Occupation, the Celtic celebration of Samhain was merged with two Roman festivals, the day of the dead, and the festival for the goddess of trees and fruits, whose symbol was the apple.
Halloween is a holiday with many meanings. It started as a religious festival and has evolved into a secular holiday that anyone from any religious background can participate in. The holiday has grown and changed along with Humanity to where it is now, incorporating fun and candy to appeal to the young and the old. It has a fun celebration of the change between season for any person, of any age, of any religion. Halloween is truly an accessible holiday.
For more information:
http://www.history.com/content/halloween/real-story-of-halloween>http://www.history.com/content/halloween/real-story-of-halloween
However, the concept of Halloween that we know today shares many differences and similarities with its Celtic and Christian origins. The name itself, Halloween, developed from Christian roots. In the 800's CE, November first was declared by the pope as All Saint's Day, or All-Hallows. The word Halloween developed from the old English word for the evening before All-Hallows.
For example, many people wear costumes during Halloween for fun, trick or treating, and for tradition. In the old Celtic traditions, costumes take on a more serious meaning. During the Celtic celebration of Samhain, it was believed that the barrier between the physical and the spiritual worlds would be at its thinnest as the world transitions from warm to cold seasons. At this time, spirits, both malevolent and benevolent, are able to move between worlds. In order to ward off evil spirits, the Celtic people would wear masks and disguises that made them look like the evil spirits. The evil spirits, seeing only other spirits and no people, would wander off in search of other victims. The reason for wearing costumes has obviously changed over the years, taking on a more light-hearted meaning.
The modern symbol of caramel apples in connection with Halloween has roots in both Roman and Celtic cultures. One reason is that, before the Roman occupation, Halloween was the end of Summer, the beginning of Fall, and the beginning of the apple harvest. The other reason is that after Roman Occupation, the Celtic celebration of Samhain was merged with two Roman festivals, the day of the dead, and the festival for the goddess of trees and fruits, whose symbol was the apple.
Halloween is a holiday with many meanings. It started as a religious festival and has evolved into a secular holiday that anyone from any religious background can participate in. The holiday has grown and changed along with Humanity to where it is now, incorporating fun and candy to appeal to the young and the old. It has a fun celebration of the change between season for any person, of any age, of any religion. Halloween is truly an accessible holiday.
For more information:
http://www.history.com/content/halloween/real-story-of-halloween>http://www.history.com/content/halloween/real-story-of-halloween
Britain and Greece Argue Over Stolen Sculptures
A few weeks ago, it was mentioned in class that Britain did a little bit of looting from Greece's Parthenon. Specifically, Thomas Bruce, the British ambassador to the area during the early 1900's, managed to make off with a sizeable amount of sculptures and architecture from the Acropolis and the Parthenon. The marble pieces were sent back to Britain and the British Museum, where they have remained for almost two hundred years. In class, there was a brief mention that Britain may not have legal ownership of the pieces and that they should be returned to their homeland of Greece.
Ever since then, Greece has advocated the return of the "Elgin Marbles", while Britain has refused to do so for almost two centuries. The British Museum has adamantly claimed that the pieces do not belong to Greece, as they are a part of history, and as such, should be viewed as part of the entire world history. Also, the British propped up their arguments with claims that if Greece receives its monuments back, what's to stop other nations from withdrawing their pieces from foreign museums? Another crucial British argument was that Greece did not have any measures of protecting the pieces and that pollution and weathering would have damaged them anyways.
Greece has its own arguments to get the Elgin Marbles back. One point is that the actions of Thomas Bruce were pretty close to vandalism and looting, as he defaced a historical site and damaged many of the monuments and sculptures. The other Greek point is that they have newly constructed The New Acropolis Museum, a state of the art museum is dedicated to the Acropolis. The New Acropolis Museum has many protective measures in place and claims to be safer for the Marbles than the British Museum.
So far, the only real British offer was a temporary loan of the pieces to the new museum. However, this only angered the Greeks, as they believe that by acknowledging the loan offer, they would provide legitimacy to British ownership of the Elgin Marbles. As the Greeks see it, only an owner can loan things out, and the British have no right to do so, because they are not the legal owners of the pieces. Greece is not the only country demanding artifacts from Britain, as that list extends from India to Nigeria.
More information can be found at:
http://www.cbc.ca/arts/artdesign/story/2009/06/12/parthenon-marbles-loan.html
Ever since then, Greece has advocated the return of the "Elgin Marbles", while Britain has refused to do so for almost two centuries. The British Museum has adamantly claimed that the pieces do not belong to Greece, as they are a part of history, and as such, should be viewed as part of the entire world history. Also, the British propped up their arguments with claims that if Greece receives its monuments back, what's to stop other nations from withdrawing their pieces from foreign museums? Another crucial British argument was that Greece did not have any measures of protecting the pieces and that pollution and weathering would have damaged them anyways.
Greece has its own arguments to get the Elgin Marbles back. One point is that the actions of Thomas Bruce were pretty close to vandalism and looting, as he defaced a historical site and damaged many of the monuments and sculptures. The other Greek point is that they have newly constructed The New Acropolis Museum, a state of the art museum is dedicated to the Acropolis. The New Acropolis Museum has many protective measures in place and claims to be safer for the Marbles than the British Museum.
So far, the only real British offer was a temporary loan of the pieces to the new museum. However, this only angered the Greeks, as they believe that by acknowledging the loan offer, they would provide legitimacy to British ownership of the Elgin Marbles. As the Greeks see it, only an owner can loan things out, and the British have no right to do so, because they are not the legal owners of the pieces. Greece is not the only country demanding artifacts from Britain, as that list extends from India to Nigeria.
More information can be found at:
http://www.cbc.ca/arts/artdesign/story/2009/06/12/parthenon-marbles-loan.html
Hadrian's Wall
Walls have been a permanent feature in world history. From ancient times up to modern day walls have been used. Originally used for defensive reasons, today walls are used mainly to keep people in. One of the best known walls in the world is Hadrian's Wall that stretches across the the border between England and Scotland. Hadrian's Wall was built by the Roman Emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138 CE) in 122. This project was part of Hadrian's goal to consolidate the Empires gains and create a stable border. Also the wall was built for protection from the barbarian tribes of Scotland.
Hadrian's wall stretches 73.5 miles across northern England, from the North to Irish Sea. The wall was built out of stone. It was fifteen feet high with a width of 8 feet. Every mile there was a small fort with two towers between each of them. Also there were 16 large forts that could house up to 1000 soldiers. On the north side of the wall there was a ditch that ran along the wall. On the south side of the large forts towns sprang up to provide for the Roman soldiers.
Emperor Hadrian died in 138 CE and his successor Antoninus Pius wanted to expand the empire. Therefore, the Antonine Wall was built across the narrow part of southern Scotland between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, in 142 CE. At this time Hadrian's wall was abandoned, and the northern border of the Roman Empire was the Antonine Wall. However, when Antonius Pius died in 161 CE his wall was abandoned and Hadrian's wall was refortified.
Hadrian's Wall was abandoned when the Romans abandoned Britain in 410, however, many of the towns by the forts continued on. Unfortunately, the wall fell into disrepair, with many stones being taken for other buildings. Today the main foundations of the wall and the forts remain. I have been to Hadrian's wall, and what surprised me the most was how well it was built. The wall was in a perfect straight line and the forts in symmetric distribution. What is left of the wall varies, some of it is gone completely, while some is over six feet high.
A great site for pictures of Hadrian's Wall
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/hadrian_gallery.shtml
For other information
http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/rome/a/aa060600a.htm
http://www.hadrians-wall.org/page.aspx//About-the-World-Heritage-Site/Archaeology-
Hadrian's wall stretches 73.5 miles across northern England, from the North to Irish Sea. The wall was built out of stone. It was fifteen feet high with a width of 8 feet. Every mile there was a small fort with two towers between each of them. Also there were 16 large forts that could house up to 1000 soldiers. On the north side of the wall there was a ditch that ran along the wall. On the south side of the large forts towns sprang up to provide for the Roman soldiers.
Emperor Hadrian died in 138 CE and his successor Antoninus Pius wanted to expand the empire. Therefore, the Antonine Wall was built across the narrow part of southern Scotland between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, in 142 CE. At this time Hadrian's wall was abandoned, and the northern border of the Roman Empire was the Antonine Wall. However, when Antonius Pius died in 161 CE his wall was abandoned and Hadrian's wall was refortified.
Hadrian's Wall was abandoned when the Romans abandoned Britain in 410, however, many of the towns by the forts continued on. Unfortunately, the wall fell into disrepair, with many stones being taken for other buildings. Today the main foundations of the wall and the forts remain. I have been to Hadrian's wall, and what surprised me the most was how well it was built. The wall was in a perfect straight line and the forts in symmetric distribution. What is left of the wall varies, some of it is gone completely, while some is over six feet high.
A great site for pictures of Hadrian's Wall
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/hadrian_gallery.shtml
For other information
http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/rome/a/aa060600a.htm
http://www.hadrians-wall.org/page.aspx//About-the-World-Heritage-Site/Archaeology-
Saturday, October 31, 2009
The Crusades: A Brief History
When we learn about the crusades we only focus on two, the first and the third. They are the most important, however, I was curious about the others. In this blog post I will briefly discuss all the crusades.
The First Crusade
The first Crusade (1095-1099), was called by Pope Urban II to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslims. This Crusade was the most successful, and in the end Jerusalem was taken and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established. Also, three other crusader states were established, Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli.
The Second Crusade
The Second Crusade (1147-1149), was called to recover the city of Edessa, which had been lost in 1145. Two kings took up the call Louis VII of France and Conrad of the Holy Roman Empire. Unfortunately, the German army was decisively defeated by the Turks in Anatolia, and this defeat knocked them out of the crusade. When the French arrived in the Holy Land they decided to attack the city of Damascus. However, due to major losses they were unable to maintain an effective siege, and with a Muslim army marching to relieve the city, they left, ending the Crusade.
The Third Crusade
The Third Crusade (1188-1192), was called to take back the city of Jerusalem. Three kings answered the call, Frederick Barbarossa, Phillip II of France, and Richard the Lionheart. Frederick's army marched to the Holy Land over land. However, his army turned back in Anatolia when he drowned. Phillip and Richard traveled by sea. After taking back the port city of Acre, Phillip, due to his health, left for home. Richard then traveled down the coast being harassed and attacked by the Muslim leader Saladin. However, Richard's army was took weak to take back Jerusalem. therefore, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty. Although not able to take back Jerusalem the crusaders took back and defended the coastal cities.
The Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was called because of the failure of the third. The Crusader army gathered at Venice to purchase passage to the Holy Land. However, they were not able to pay for the passage. Therefore, the Venetians make a deal; the Crusaders would take Zama, a rebellious city on the Adriatic, and then they would take them to the Holy Land. Before, the fleet sailed Prince Alexius of the Byzantines showed up. He convinced the Crusaders to attack Constantinople, because Alexius's father was over thrown and replaced by his brother. The Crusaders, after defeating Zama, sailed to Constantinople. After a siege and assaults, the cities defences fell, leading to a sack of the city. The Fourth Crusade ended here, after the great wealth of Constantinople had been divided among the victors.
The Fifth Crusade
The Fifth Crusade (1213-1221) set out to take Egypt. Egypt was the main Muslim power in the area, therefore, to knock it out Jerusalem would be easier to take. The Crusader army landed on the Nile planning to march up it to take Cairo. The first city to take was Damietta, which was on the Nile blocking the route to Cairo. After a year of siege and unsuccessful attempts by the Muslims to defeat the Crusader army, the city was taken. Due to Crusader disunity and waiting for reinforcements the army did not move on Cairo immediately. This allowed the Muslims to build up strength. When the Crusader army finally moved marched on Cairo they were defeated. After this defeat a peace treaty was signed that restored all lands before the Crusade began and a eight year peace.
The Sixth Crusade
The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) was Holy Roman Emperor's Frederick II crusade to make up for his failure to come to the aid of the crusaders in the Fifth Crusade. Frederick II due to his long history of backing down from the crusades, his conflicts with the Pope, and an outbreak of disease on his ships that delayed him, the Pope excommunicated him. Nevertheless Frederick sailed to the Holy Land. However, due to his excommunication many in the Holy Land did not help him and join his crusade. Therefore, Frederick could not launch an offensive. Fortunately, Muslim infighting created an opportunity for diplomacy. Frederick signed a peace treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, Al-Kamil. This treaty returned Jerusalem to the Christians and guaranteed a ten year peace. Frederick claimed the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but left the Holy Land because local Christian leaders did not recognized him as king.
The Seventh Crusade
The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) was undertaken by King Louis XI of France. This last major Crusade resembled the fifth one. Louis planned to take Egypt, therefore, weakening the Muslim hold on Jerusalem. Like the Fifth Crusade, Louis marched down the Nile, taking Damietta, with relative ease. Louis continued the march to Cairo, attacking the Muslims at Mansourah. At first the battle went in favor of the Crusaders. However, a counterattack pushed the crusaders back to their camp. Due to a Muslim blockade and an outbreak of disease the Crusader army surrendered. King Louis was released when his ransom was paid.
The Eighth Crusade
The Eighth Crusade (1270) was another crusade taken by Louis XI of France. The plan was to take Tunisia and then march across north Africa to Egypt and the Holy Land. However, after beginning the siege of Tunis, Louis died. His brother succeeded him, and a peace treaty was signed.
The Ninth Crusade
The Ninth Crusade (1271-1272) was carried out by Prince Edward of England. Edward arriving too late to participate in the eighth crusade decided to sail for the Holy Land. After arriving he ended the siege of Acre. Unfortunately, word got to him that his father died and he had to return to England to be crowned king.
After the Ninth Crusade there were no more attempts to regain the Holy Land. The final Crusader city, Acre, fell in 1291 ending the Crusading era.
For more information about the Crusades
http://crusades.boisestate.edu/contents.shtml
The First Crusade
The first Crusade (1095-1099), was called by Pope Urban II to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslims. This Crusade was the most successful, and in the end Jerusalem was taken and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established. Also, three other crusader states were established, Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli.
The Second Crusade
The Second Crusade (1147-1149), was called to recover the city of Edessa, which had been lost in 1145. Two kings took up the call Louis VII of France and Conrad of the Holy Roman Empire. Unfortunately, the German army was decisively defeated by the Turks in Anatolia, and this defeat knocked them out of the crusade. When the French arrived in the Holy Land they decided to attack the city of Damascus. However, due to major losses they were unable to maintain an effective siege, and with a Muslim army marching to relieve the city, they left, ending the Crusade.
The Third Crusade
The Third Crusade (1188-1192), was called to take back the city of Jerusalem. Three kings answered the call, Frederick Barbarossa, Phillip II of France, and Richard the Lionheart. Frederick's army marched to the Holy Land over land. However, his army turned back in Anatolia when he drowned. Phillip and Richard traveled by sea. After taking back the port city of Acre, Phillip, due to his health, left for home. Richard then traveled down the coast being harassed and attacked by the Muslim leader Saladin. However, Richard's army was took weak to take back Jerusalem. therefore, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty. Although not able to take back Jerusalem the crusaders took back and defended the coastal cities.
The Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was called because of the failure of the third. The Crusader army gathered at Venice to purchase passage to the Holy Land. However, they were not able to pay for the passage. Therefore, the Venetians make a deal; the Crusaders would take Zama, a rebellious city on the Adriatic, and then they would take them to the Holy Land. Before, the fleet sailed Prince Alexius of the Byzantines showed up. He convinced the Crusaders to attack Constantinople, because Alexius's father was over thrown and replaced by his brother. The Crusaders, after defeating Zama, sailed to Constantinople. After a siege and assaults, the cities defences fell, leading to a sack of the city. The Fourth Crusade ended here, after the great wealth of Constantinople had been divided among the victors.
The Fifth Crusade
The Fifth Crusade (1213-1221) set out to take Egypt. Egypt was the main Muslim power in the area, therefore, to knock it out Jerusalem would be easier to take. The Crusader army landed on the Nile planning to march up it to take Cairo. The first city to take was Damietta, which was on the Nile blocking the route to Cairo. After a year of siege and unsuccessful attempts by the Muslims to defeat the Crusader army, the city was taken. Due to Crusader disunity and waiting for reinforcements the army did not move on Cairo immediately. This allowed the Muslims to build up strength. When the Crusader army finally moved marched on Cairo they were defeated. After this defeat a peace treaty was signed that restored all lands before the Crusade began and a eight year peace.
The Sixth Crusade
The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) was Holy Roman Emperor's Frederick II crusade to make up for his failure to come to the aid of the crusaders in the Fifth Crusade. Frederick II due to his long history of backing down from the crusades, his conflicts with the Pope, and an outbreak of disease on his ships that delayed him, the Pope excommunicated him. Nevertheless Frederick sailed to the Holy Land. However, due to his excommunication many in the Holy Land did not help him and join his crusade. Therefore, Frederick could not launch an offensive. Fortunately, Muslim infighting created an opportunity for diplomacy. Frederick signed a peace treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, Al-Kamil. This treaty returned Jerusalem to the Christians and guaranteed a ten year peace. Frederick claimed the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but left the Holy Land because local Christian leaders did not recognized him as king.
The Seventh Crusade
The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) was undertaken by King Louis XI of France. This last major Crusade resembled the fifth one. Louis planned to take Egypt, therefore, weakening the Muslim hold on Jerusalem. Like the Fifth Crusade, Louis marched down the Nile, taking Damietta, with relative ease. Louis continued the march to Cairo, attacking the Muslims at Mansourah. At first the battle went in favor of the Crusaders. However, a counterattack pushed the crusaders back to their camp. Due to a Muslim blockade and an outbreak of disease the Crusader army surrendered. King Louis was released when his ransom was paid.
The Eighth Crusade
The Eighth Crusade (1270) was another crusade taken by Louis XI of France. The plan was to take Tunisia and then march across north Africa to Egypt and the Holy Land. However, after beginning the siege of Tunis, Louis died. His brother succeeded him, and a peace treaty was signed.
The Ninth Crusade
The Ninth Crusade (1271-1272) was carried out by Prince Edward of England. Edward arriving too late to participate in the eighth crusade decided to sail for the Holy Land. After arriving he ended the siege of Acre. Unfortunately, word got to him that his father died and he had to return to England to be crowned king.
After the Ninth Crusade there were no more attempts to regain the Holy Land. The final Crusader city, Acre, fell in 1291 ending the Crusading era.
For more information about the Crusades
http://crusades.boisestate.edu/contents.shtml
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